Measuring competences for democratic culture: teaching human rights through religious education

Marios  Koukounaras Liagkis; Michalis Skordoulis; Vasiliki Geronikou

doi:10.7577/hrer.4487

Authors

Marios Koukounaras Liagkis National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9140-4059
Michalis Skordoulis Democritus University of Thrace, Dep. of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources, Greece https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-507X
Vasiliki Geronikou National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Dep. Of Theology, Greece https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9941-1322

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.7577/hrer.4487

Abstract

This paper aims to present research on measuring competences for democratic culture. It describes the development of a multiple-item scale that measures competences in teaching democratic citizenship and human rights through religious education. A principal component analysis based on the 135 items of the Council of Europe’s Reference framework of competences for democratic culture was carried out in two phases, in order to construct and refine the scale. The result was a 52-item scale divided into six components. This was tested for its reliability, factor structure and validity; firstly on a sample of 123, and secondly on a sample of 403 secondary RE teachers (2018-19). The research scrutinises the concept of democratic competences as being the ability to mobilise and deploy relevant values, attitudes, skills, knowledge and/or understanding. It concludes that these competences are more complex structures than has been assumed.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

References

Apple, M. W. (2013). Educating the right way. Markets, standards, God, and inequality (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203112847 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203112847

Arthur, J., Moulin-Stozek, D., Metcalfe, J., & Moller, F. (2019). Religious rducation teachers and character: Personal beliefs and professional approaches. Research Report. Birmingham: University of Birmingham-The Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues.

Arweck, E. (Eds.). (2017). Young people's attitudes to religious diversity. London and New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315546032 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315546032

Barnes, P. (2012). Diversity. In P. Barnes (Eds.), Debates in religious education (pp. 65-76). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813805 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813805

Barrett, M., Byram, M., Lázár, I., Mompoint-Gaillard, P., & Philippou, S. (2014). Developing intercultural competence through education. Strasbourg: Council of Europe

Bennett, J. M. (2004). Becoming interculturally competent. In J. Wurzel (Eds.), Toward multiculturalism: A reader in multicultural education (pp. 62-77). (2nd ed). Newton, MA: Intecultural Resource Corporation.

Biesta, G. (2014). Pragmatising the curriculum: Bringing knowledge back into the curriculum conversation, but via pragmatism. The Curriculum Journal, 25(1), 29-49. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2013.874954 https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2013.874954

Biesta, G. (2020). The three gifts of teaching: Towards a non-egological future for moral education. Journal of Moral Education, 50(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2020.1763279 https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2020.1763279

Biesta, G., & Lawy, R. (2006). From teaching citizenship to learning democracy: Overcoming individualism in research, policy and practice. Cambridge Journal of Education, 36(1), 63-79. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057640500490981 https://doi.org/10.1080/03057640500490981

Brett, P., Mompoint-Gaillard, P., & Salema, M.-H. (2009). How all teachers can support citizenship and human rights education: A framework for the development of competences. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Burridge, N., Chodkiewicz, A., Payne, A. M., Oguro, S., Vamham, S., & Buchanan, J. (2013). Human rights education in the school curriculum. Sydney: Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Research Centre, University of Technology.

Christopher, K.B. (2020). RE as liberal education: A proposal for a critical religious education (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University College London: London

Churchill Jr, G. A., Ford, N. M., & Walker Jr, O. C. (1974). Measuring the job satisfaction of industrial salesmen. Jouranl of Marketing Research, 11(3), 254-260. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151140 https://doi.org/10.1177/002224377401100303

Clement, J. (2014). Managing mandated educational change. School Leadership & Management, 34(1), 39-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2013.813460 https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2013.813460

Conroy, J. C., Wenell, K. J., & Lundie, D. (2013). Does religious education work? A multi-dimensional investigation. London: Bloomsbury.

Council of Europe (2007): Recommendation Rec (2007)6 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the public responsibility for higher education and research. Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/16805d5dae

Council of Europe. (2008). Recommendation CM/Rec(2008)12 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the dimension of religions and non-religious convictions within intercultural education. Retrieved from https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1386911&Site=CM

Council of Europe. (2010). Charter on Education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education. Recommendation CM/Rec(2010)7 and explanatory memorandum. Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/16803034e3

Council of Europe. (2016). Pestalozzi Programme trainer training course: Strengthening education for democracy (STED): Strengthening education for democracy (STED). Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/pestalozzi/sted

Council of Europe. (2018a). Reference framework of competences for democratic culture (Vol. I). Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/campaign-free-to-speak-safe-to-learn/reference-framework-of-competences-for-democratic-culture

Council of Europe. (2018b). Reference framework of competences for democratic culture (Vol. II). Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/campaign-free-to-speak-safe-to-learn/reference-framework-of-competences-for-democratic-culture

Council of Europe. (2018c). Reference framework of competences for democratic culture (Vol. III). Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/campaign-free-to-speak-safe-to-learn/reference-framework-of-competences-for-democratic-culture

Deardorff, D. K. (2009). Implementing intercultural competence assessment. In D. K. Deardorff (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Intercultural Competence (pp. 477-491). U.S.A.: Sage

Dewey, J. ([1916] 2002). Democracy and education. In John Dewey and American education (Vol. 3). Bristol: Thoemmes.

Eksner, H. J., & Nur Chemma, S. (2017). Who here is a real German? German Muslim youths, othering,. In J. A. Banks (Eds.), Citizenship education and global migration: Implications for theory, research, and teaching (pp. 161-183). Washington: American Educational Research Association.

Erricker, C. (2010). Religious education. A conceptual and interdisciplinary approach for secondary level. London New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203855546 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203855546

European Commission. (2017). Preparing teachers for diversity: The role of initial teacher education. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved from https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/b347bf7d-1db1-11e7-aeb3-01aa75ed71a1/language-en

Everington, J. (2013). Hindu, Muslim and Sikh religious education teachers’ use of personal life knowledge: The relationship between biographies, professional beliefs and practice. British Journal of Religious Education, 36(2), 155-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2013.820169 https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2013.820169

Francis, B., & Mills, M. (2012). Schools as damaging organisations: Instigating a dialogue concerning alternative models of schooling. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 20(2), 251-271. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2012.688765 https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2012.688765

Franken, L. (2017). Country report: Belgium-Flemish community. British Journal of Religious Education, 39(3), 234-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2017.1345515 https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2017.1345515

Franken, L. (2021). Autonomy and shared citizenship: A ‘neutral’ justification for RE? In O. Franck, & P. Thalén (Eds.), Religious education in a post-secular age. Case studies from Europe (pp. 207-228). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47503-1_11 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47503-1_11

Franken, L., & Loobuyck, P. (2016). Neutrality and impartiality in RE: An impossible aim? British Journal of Religious Education, 39(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2016.1218219 https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2016.1218219

Garratt, D., & Piper, H. (2012). Citizenship education and philosophical enquiry: Putting thinking back into practice Education. Education Citizenship and Social Justice, 7(1), 71-84. https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197911432592 https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197911432592

Gillborn, D. (2006). Citizenship education as placebo: ‘Standards’, institutional racism and education policy. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 1(1), 83-104. https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197906060715 https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197906060715

Habermas, J. (1990). Moral consciousness and communicative action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Hargreaves, D. H. (2004). Inclusive and exclusive educational change: Emotional responses of teachers and implications for leadership. School Leadership & Management: Formerly School Organisation, 24(3), 287-309. https://doi.org/10.1080/1363243042000266936 https://doi.org/10.1080/1363243042000266936

Heater, D. (2004). Citizenship. The cvic ideal in world history, politics and education. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Heilbroun, R. (2021). Education as social practice. In G. Biesta, & P. Hannam (Eds.), Religion and education. The forgotten dimensions of religious education? (pp. 20-35). Leiden, Boston: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004446397_003 https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004446397_003

Ipgrave, J. (2001). Pupil-to-pupil dialogue in the classroom as a tool for religious education: Warwick religious and education research unit occasional papers II. Coventry: WRERU.

Ipgrave, J. (2004). 'Including pupils' faith background in primary religious education. Support for Learning, 19(3), 114-8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0268-2141.2004.00332.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0268-2141.2004.00332.x

Ipgrave, J., Knauth, T., Körs, A., Vieregge, D., & von der Lippe, M. (2018). Religion and dialogue in the city. Case studies on interreligious encounter in urban community and education. Munster: Waxmann.

Jackson, R. (Ed.). (2014). Signposts - policy and practice for teaching about religions and non-religious world views in intercultural education. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Jackson, R., & Everington, J. (2016). Teaching inclusive religious education impartially: An English perspective. British Journal of Religious Education, 39(1), 7-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2016.1165184 https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2016.1165184

Jennings, T. (2006). Human rights education standards for teachers and teacher education. Teaching Education, 17(4), 287-298. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210601017378 https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210601017378

Jónsson, Ó., & Rodriguez, A. (2019). Educating democracy: Competences for a democratic culture. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, online, 16(1), 62-77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197919886873 https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197919886873

Kaufman, J.D. & Dunlap, W.P. (2000). Determining the number of factors to retain: A Windows-based FORTRAN-IMSL program for parallel analysis. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 32(3), 389–395. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200806 https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200806

Kittelmann Flensner, K. (2018). Secularized and multi-religious classroom practice-Discourses and interactions. Education Sciences, 8(116), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8030116 https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8030116

Kjelden, K. (2016). Citizenship and RE: Different interpretations in discourse and practice: A Case from Denmark. In J. Berglund, Y. Shanneik, & B. Bocking (Eds.), Religious education in a global-local world (pp. 145-164). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32289-6_10 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32289-6_10

Klutz, P. (2016). Religious education faces the challenge of religious plurality. Munster: Waxmann.

Koukounaras Liagkis, M. (2015). Religious education in Greece: a New curriculum, an old issue. British Journal of Religious Education, 37(2), 153-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2014.944093 https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2014.944093

Koukounaras Liagkis, M. (2019). What does a child learn in religious education at school?. Greek Journal of Religious Education, 2(1), 124-138. http://doi.org/10.30457/30420191 https://doi.org/10.30457/30420191

Koukounaras Liagkis, M. (2021). The framework of the new curricula in Greece: Profound changes in religious education. In L. J. Francis, D. W. Lankshear & S. G. Parker (Eds), New directions in religious and values education. International Perspectives (pp. 115-129). Peter Lang.

Leganger-Krogstad, H. (2003). Dialogue among young citizens in a pluralistic religious education classroom. In R. Jackson (Eds.), International perspectives on citizenship, education and religious diversity (pp. 150-169). London New York: Routledge Falmer.

Lundie, D., & Conroy, J. (2015). ‘Respect study’ the treatment of religious difference and otherness: An ethnographic investigation in UK Schools. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 36(3), 274-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2015.1029886 https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2015.1029886

Merry, M. S. (2020). Can schools teach citizenship? Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 41(1), 124-138. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2018.1488242 https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2018.1488242

Mpisi, A., Groenewald, E., & Barnett, E. (2020). Experiencing ‘otherness’: Teacher educators’ journey with first year pre-service teachers. Issues in Educational Research, 30(2), 573-592.

Mutch, C. (2012). Curriculum change and teacher resistance. Curriculum Matters, 8, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.18296/cm.0145 https://doi.org/10.18296/cm.0145

Nieuwelink, H., Dekker, P., & ten Dam, G. (2019). Compensating or reproducing? Students from different educational tracks and the role of school in experiencing democratic citizenship. Cambridge Journal of Education, 49(3), 275-292. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2018.1529738 https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2018.1529738

Nixon, G., Smith, D., & Fraser-Pearce, J. (2021). Irreligious educators? An empirical study of the academic qualifications, (a)theistic positionality, and religious belief of religious education teachers in England and Scotland. Religions, 12(184), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12030184 https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12030184

Norman, R., & Gallagher, T. (Eds.). (2011). Education for diversity and mutual understanding. The experience of Northern Ireland. Bern: Peter Lang.

Nussbaum, M. C. (2006). Education and democratic citizenship: Capabilities and quality education. Journal of Human Development, 7(3), 285-395. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880600815974 https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880600815974

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2016). PISA. Preparing our youth for an inclusive and sustainable world. The OECD PISA global competence framework. Paris: OECD. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/education/Global-competency-for-an-inclusive-world.pdf

O'Grady, K., & Jackson , R. (2020). ‘A touchy subject’: Teaching and learning about difference in the religious education classroom. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 41(1), 88-101. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2019.1614755 https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2019.1614755

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1988). Servqual: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perc. Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12-40.

Print, M., & Lange, D. (Eds.). (2012). Schools, curriculum and civic education for building democratic citizens. Rotterdam: Sense. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-167-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-167-2

Rawls, J. (2001). Justice as fairness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Robinson, C., Phillips, L., & Quennerstedt, A. (2020). Human rights education: Developing a theoretical understanding of teachers’ responsibilities. Educational Review, 72(2), 220-241. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2018.1495182 https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2018.1495182

Sachs, J. (2003). The activist teaching profession. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Salema, M.H. (2005). Teacher and trainer training in education for democratic citizenship competencies. Journal of Social Science Education, 4(3), 39-49. https://doi.org/10.4119/jsse-326

Saxe, R., & Weitz, B. A. (1982). The SOCO Scale: A measure of the customer orientation of salespeople. Journal of Marketing Research, 19(3), 343-351. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378201900307 https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378201900307

Schreiner, P. (Eds.). (2018). Are you READY? Diversity and religious education across Europe-The story of the Ready Project. Munster: Waxmann.

Shanneik, Y. (2016). "They aren't holy": Dealing with religious differences in Irish primary schools. In J. Berglund, Y, Shanneik & B. Bocking (Eds.), Religious education in a global-local world (pp. 165-180). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32289-6_11 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32289-6_11

Skeie, G. (Eds.) (2009). Religious diversity and education. Nordic perspectives. Munster: Waxmann.

Stern, J. (2006). Teaching religious education. Researchers in the classroom. London: Continuum.

Tibbitts, F. (2002). Understanding what we do: Emerging models for human rghts education. International Review of Education, 48(3-4), 159-171. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020338300881 https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020338300881

Tolliver, D. E. & Tisdell, E. J. (2006). Engaging spirituality in the transformative higher education classroom. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education (109), 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.206 https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.206

Valk, P. (2009). How do European students see the impact of religion in society? In P. Valk (Eds.), Teenagers' perceptions on the role of religion in their lives, schools and societies: A European quantitative study. Munster: Waxmann.

Vince, M. (2020). ‘Neutrality’, muslimness and the whiteness of RE professionalism. Journal of Religious Education, 68, 371-383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40839-020-00114-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40839-020-00114-6

Weisse, W. (2011). Reflections on the REDCo project. British Journal of Religious Education, 33(2), 111-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2011.543589 https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2011.543589

Weisse, W., Amirpur, K., Körs, A., & Vieregge, D. (Eds.). (2014). Religions and dialogue. International approaches. Munster: Waxmann.

Zembylas, M. (2003). Interrogating "teacher identity": Emotion, resistence, and self-formation. Educational Theory, 53(1), 107-127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5446.2003.00107.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5446.2003.00107.x

Zembylas, M., Charalambous, P., Charalambous, C., & Lesta, S. (2017). Toward a critical hermeneutical approach of human rights education: Universal ideals, contextual realities and teachers’ difficulties. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 49(4), 497-517. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904118788990 https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2016.1188156

Zembylas, M., Loukaidis, L., & Antoniou, M. (2019). The politicisation and securitisation of religious education in Greek–Cypriot schools. European Educational Research Journal, 18(1), 69-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2016.1188156 https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904118788990

Zimmerman, J. (2006). Why some teachers resist change and what principals can do about it? NASSP Bulletin, 90(3), 238-249. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192636506291521 https://doi.org/10.1177/0192636506291521

Østberg, S. (2013). Diverisity and citizenship in a context of Islamophobia. In J. Miller, K. O'Grady, & U. McKenna (Eds.), Religion in education. Innovation in International Research (pp. 58-71). New York: Routledge.